Gender Apartheid in Iran is Crushing Women’s Lives and Futures

This International Women’s Day, the World Must Declare Gender Apartheid a Crime Against Humanity

March 6, 2025 — In Iran, women are second-class citizens—systematically oppressed by laws and policies that serve only one purpose: to entrench the power of the government. For over four decades, the Islamic Republic has restricted women’s rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, child custody, work, the courts, political office, travel, lifestyle, and clothing—using their bodies and freedoms as tools of domination—and has blatantly failed to protect women from gender-based violence.

As the Iranian government escalates its systematic assault on women’s fundamental rights and solidifies a discriminatory system that can only be described as gender apartheid, the urgent need to criminalize gender-based violations of international law has never been greater, the Center for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI) said today.

“The oppression of women in Iran is not just discrimination—it is a deliberately designed, institutionalized system of domination intended to enforce the subjugation of women to maintain the state’s grip on power. This state-sanctioned systemic subjugation amounts to nothing less than gender apartheid, which fully meets the threshold of a crime against humanity,” said Bahar Ghandehari, the director of communications at CHRI.

“Until gender apartheid is recognized as a crime under international law, we won’t have the mechanisms to address it. That is why it is crucial for States that support women’s rights to support the codification of gender apartheid as a crime against humanity,” Ghandehari stressed.

Gender apartheid is not yet explicitly recognized as a distinct crime under international law. Iranian activists and legal experts have been advocating for its formal recognition as a crime against humanity in order to expand the legal, political, and diplomatic tools needed to address the systemic gender-based rights violations in countries like Iran.

International Women’s Day has long been a day of resistance against oppression for Iranian women. On March 8, 1979, just weeks after the Iranian Revolution, tens of thousands of women flooded the streets of Tehran, protesting then supreme leader Ayatollah Khomeini’s decree mandating compulsory veiling for women. Their resistance then—as today—was met with state violence, but their fight never ceased. 

On this International Women’s Day, CHRI calls on governments worldwide to:

• Support the codification of gender apartheid as a crime in the proposed Crimes Against Humanity treaty.
• Publicly recognize and condemn the institutionalization of gender apartheid in Iran.
• Pressure the Iranian authorities to repeal discriminatory laws against women and girls, including the draconian new hijab law and laws permitting child marriage.
• Institute targeted sanctions against officials responsible for the suppression of women, particularly judicial and security officials who play a key role in enforcing discriminatory policies. 
• Pursue prosecution of individuals implicated in gross abuses against women in national courts under the principle of universal jurisdiction.
• Support UN mechanisms and investigations into human rights abuses in Iran, such as extending and expanding upon the Fact-Finding Mission on Iran, which is set to expire in April 2025.

Being a Woman in Gender Apartheid Iran: Women Tell Their Stories

Severe, systematic, and institutionalized gender-based discrimination pervades all aspects of life for women in Iran, from the personal to the public, regardless of age, background, or status. This discrimination is codified in law and entrenched in practice. CHRI recently spoke to numerous women in Iran from all walks of life, who shared their experiences of what it is like to live in gender apartheid Iran.

Mandatory Dress Codes for Girls and Women

At age nine, girls are legally required to adhere to the mandatory dress code for women, although compulsory veiling is actually imposed on girls at age seven, when they start first grade. Women and girls are required to cover their hair and entire bodies, with only their faces, hands, and feet visible. Those who defy the dress code can face punishments that include flogging, fines, and imprisonment. 

Iran’s so-called “morality” police enforce compulsory dress codes through harassment, arrests, imprisonment, and violence. In September 2022, 22-year-old Mahsa Jina Amini was killed in custody three days after being violently arrested for an alleged hijab violation. Her death sparked the Woman, Life, Freedom protests that erupted across Iran, which were eventually crushed only after violent state suppression that left over 500 protesters killed and tens of thousands arrested.

In September 2024, top UN experts said the Islamic Republic’s new “Law to Support the Family by Promoting the Culture of Chastity and Hijab,” which places draconian punishments on women and girls for hijab noncompliance “could be described as a form of gender apartheid, as authorities appear to be governing through systemic discrimination with the intention of suppressing women and girls into total submission.”

In an interview with CHRI, Zohreh, a 55-year-old housewife living in an impoverished neighborhood in Tehran, said: 

“I grew up in a very religious family and have always worn full-body hijab (chador). I never take it off, not even when traveling. A few days ago, I was walking in my neighborhood when I saw three young unveiled girls—who were clearly nurses returning from work. As soon as they saw me with my chador, they loudly chanted: ‘Death to Khamenei!’ I immediately responded: ‘Hopefully!’

One of the girls, upon hearing my response, quickly approached me, hugged me, and, surprised, said: ‘When we saw you in a chador, we thought you were going to reprimand us for not wearing a hijab…’

“It was a very strange feeling. I was so happy that I could connect with those girls—who were the same age as my own son—so they didn’t have a mistaken impression of me. But at the same time, I felt sad. Why should people be judged by their clothing?

“I told the girls: ‘You are braver than us, so you will surely achieve your goals.’”

Simin, a 32-year-old woman bookstore owner in Isfahan, told CHRI: 

“After the Jina [Woman, Life, Freedom] movement, the other shop owners in the neighborhood (all men) have developed a very positive and supportive view of me. I never wear the hijab in my bookstore, and several times, the neighboring shopkeepers—men—have come into my bookstore and thanked me for being so brave. 

“Although in today’s Iran, only women are actively engaged in the real struggle every day, I believe the voice that narrates this struggle and conveys it to the world is still a male voice. In my opinion, the real voice of the discrimination and oppression that women constantly face in this country is not properly heard. I believe the women’s struggle in Iran will only succeed when they themselves become the narrators of their pain.”

Male Guardianship and Permission to Travel

Women and girls in Iran are subject to a system of male guardianship that restricts their rights throughout their lives. Before marriage, they remain under the legal authority of their father or another male relative, even after turning 18. After marriage, the husband assumes many of these legal controls.

Unmarried women aged 18 and older must obtain their father or male guardian’s consent to travel abroad. Married women are legally required to obtain their husband’s consent to obtain, renew, and use a passport, and a husband can revoke his prior approval at any time.

In 2015, Niloufar Ardalan, the captain of the Iranian women’s football team, missed the AFC Women’s Futsal Championship because her husband would not allow her to renew her passport. In 2017, Iranian Paralympic gold medalist Zahra Nemati was prevented from traveling abroad by her husband, who had asked the Passport Office not to issue an exit visa to Nemati after she sought a divorce.

In an interview with CHRI, 26-year-old Zahra, a student in Germany who had traveled to Iran with her fiancé, said she was barred from leaving Iran due to missing her birth certificate, which authorities required to verify her marital status.

“They said I didn’t have a birth certificate, and they couldn’t check if I was married. My fiancé said, ‘No, we’re not married; we came to Iran for our engagement.’ I said, ‘My father is still at the airport, and he can give consent,’ but the police said, ‘If you are married, we don’t accept your father’s consent.’ My fiancé had to return to Germany alone, and I stayed in Iran until the next week when the holidays ended, so I could get a certificate of unmarried status from the civil registration office and an exit permit from the police.”

Inequality in Marriage, Divorce, and Child Custody

Children in Iran begin to feel the impact of gender apartheid policies as early as age seven, when, in the event of a divorce, they are automatically taken away from their mother and placed in the custody of their father or other male relatives.

In Iran, girls can be married at age 13 or younger with the consent of a judge and male guardian. Figures released by the Statistical Center of Iran showed that between the winter of 2021 and 2022, at least 27,448 registered marriages of girls under the age of 15 were recorded, along with 1,085 cases of childbirth within this age group. These forced child marriages—essentially child rape—occur in a country that lacks the laws, policies, and services to protect women from domestic violence.

Under Iranian law, women and girls require their father’s (or paternal grandfather’s) permission to marry. However, a court can override his decision. This system undermines women’s autonomy, exposing them to the risk of forced marriages and violence by stripping them of their fundamental right to make decisions about their own lives.

The Islamic Republic’s law allows men to unilaterally divorce their wives, even verbally, while it is extraordinarily difficult for women to seek divorce, with onerous conditions that are often impossible to meet and are at the discretion of the deciding judge, and which result in the woman losing financial maintenance and child custody.

In an interview with CHRI, Pantea, a 30-year-old woman from Shiraz, spoke about the discriminatory legal issues she had to face to obtain a divorce.

“I was one of those who believed conditions in the marriage contract should be included, and I did just that. My husband had no objections… However, I delayed notarizing it. After [our marriage deteriorated], I decided to divorce. Unfortunately, not having notarized [the contract], the conditions didn’t hold weight in court, despite its inclusion in the marriage certificate. 

“He and his family said I couldn’t divorce. I hired a lawyer. I was sent to counseling and had to listen to worthless and humiliating comments. It was an unbearable period; I wanted to free myself from the humiliation of that relationship but ended up on another path full of new humiliations. 

“Even though I got the ruling and succeeded, I think about the women I saw in those days, women who couldn’t afford the costs or access a skilled lawyer, women who endured physical violence, women who were raped by their husbands and were trying to divorce, but the violence they suffered wasn’t considered enough reason for separation.”

Child custody laws are also extremely discriminatory in Iran. Under Articles 1180 and 1181 of the Iranian Civil Code, legal guardianship of a child is granted to the father or paternal grandfather. Even if both are deceased, the mother does not gain guardianship, which may instead be given to a male relative on the father’s side. Article 1169 states that fathers automatically receive custody of children over the age of seven, and mothers who decide to remarry may lose child custody.

Inequality in Inheritance

Under the Islamic Republic’s inheritance laws, a man inherits his deceased wife’s entire estate, while a widow typically receives one-eighth of her husband’s estate. Additionally, a son inherits twice as much as a daughter. Until 2009, women were also prohibited from inheriting land.

In an interview with CHRI, Nazli, a 45-year-old woman from Gorgan, northern Iran, said:

“After our father’s death, we discussed the division of inheritance. My brother, despite being a non-religious person with a modern lifestyle, refused to take an equal share of the inheritance. This caused me a great deal of emotional stress, and ultimately, my relationship with my family and brother became tense, especially as my mother insisted that my brother was simply claiming his legal share and wasn’t being unfair.”

Employment and Professional Barriers

Women are prohibited under Iranian labor law from some professions; for example, they cannot be judges and are also barred from holding certain positions in the government. Even in professions where women are permitted to work, systemic discrimination and the lack of laws prohibiting gender discrimination in the workplace limit women’s opportunities for advancement.

Moreover, women can be completely forbidden from working by their husbands. According to Article 1117 of Iran’s civil code, a husband can prevent his wife from occupations that he “deems against family values or inimical to his or her reputation.”

The World Economic Forum’s 2024 Global Gender Gap Report ranks Iran among the worst countries in the world regarding gender-based discrimination, ranking it at 143rd out of 146 countries. The World Bank, meanwhile, highlights Iran’s dismal female labor force participation: despite women making up over 60% of university graduates in Iran, only 14% are in the workforce.

In the workplace, women often face harassment, barriers to advancement, and other forms of discrimination, reinforcing economic dependence on male relatives.

In an interview with CHRI, Maryam, a 32-year-old Ph.D. graduate at Tehran University of Medical Sciences, said: 

“During the thesis defense session, the last words from my supervisor at the end were: ‘Thank you, Dr. Maryam, you worked hard, it was good, but I think you should go home and raise your child now! The Tehran faculty won’t easily create a job opportunity for you, and you can’t go to the provinces either because you’re married. This child of yours has been without a proper mother for the past five years. At least when school starts, be there for him and take care of his studies!'”

Mahsa, a 45-year-old lawyer in Mashhad, told CHRI: 

“Early in my career, when I was still a legal apprentice, I realized that the judicial system in our province was extremely restrictive, making it nearly impossible for a woman like me to work in that environment. So, I decided to work at a notary office and essentially gave up practicing law.

“But after the Mahsa movement, I returned to the legal profession, and now I run a law firm with two of my friends. Although most of my cases are related to divorce and financial and family matters, I’ve noticed how much more determined women and girls have become in fighting for their rights.”

Women in the performing arts also face profound barriers In Iran. For example, women are banned from singing, dancing, and performing solo in public. To cite only a few recent cases that illustrate the state response to noncompliance, on February 27, 2025, 27-year-old Hiwa Saifizadeh was arrested mid-performance in Tehran. In December 2024, 27-year-old singer Parastoo Ahmadi was detained after live-streaming a concert on YouTube in which she also was not wearing a hijab. In August 2024, 29-year-old singer Zara Esmaeili was arrested and held incommunicado after videos of her performing on the streets without the mandatory hijab went viral.

Criminal Law Also Deeply Discriminatory Toward Women

Criminal law in the Islamic Republic is also highly discriminatory towards women. For example, girls reach the age of criminal responsibility at the age of nine, while boys do not reach this until age 15.

A woman’s court testimony, meanwhile, is worth half that of a man’s. In addition, flogging and death sentences for certain adultery offenses disproportionally affect women, because only men can claim “temporary marriages” (thus evading adultery charges), while women have no similar right.

Significant Restrictions in Sports Participation

Women in Iran also face significant restrictions when it comes to participating in sports. For the past four decades, Iranian authorities have banned girls and women from sports events in stadiums—arresting, beating, and imprisoning those who defy the ban.

In 2018, prominent Iranian women urged the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) to pressure Iran to end this discriminatory ban. In September 2019, Sahar Khodayari, a female football fan known as the “Blue Girl” after her favorite team’s color, was sentenced to prison for attempting to enter a stadium. In protest, she set herself on fire outside Tehran’s Revolutionary Court and later died in a hospital.

Following international pressure, particularly from FIFA, and outrage inside the country, authorities have since occasionally allowed a limited number of women into stadiums to attend events, but this remains an exception rather than the rule, and the practical ban on women entering football stadiums persists.

Moreover, Iranian women athletes face strict dress codes when participating in competitions, with the mandatory hijab and full-body covering required in all public sports events, even outside of Iran. In October 2022, Iranian climber Elnaz Rekabi competed in South Korea without a headscarf, defying Iran’s mandatory dress code. After disappearing for nearly 24 hours, she returned to Iran, where authorities forced her to claim it was unintentional. She was reportedly placed under house arrest.

These restrictions impede Iranian women’s full participation in the athletic community, denying them basic rights and freedoms that their male counterparts enjoy fully.

Why is it important to recognize gender apartheid as a crime? 

Currently, under international law, apartheid based on gender is not recognized as a crime because the apartheid standards were designed to address racial apartheid in South Africa. As a result, a group of Afghan and Iranian women’s rights activists and lawyers launched the End Gender Apartheid Campaign to fix this legal gap by adding “gender” to the definition of apartheid and including gender apartheid as a crime in the proposed Crimes Against Humanity treaty.

Building accountability: If adopted, States would then be required to criminalize gender apartheid in their own domestic laws, and they would also be required to prevent, punish, and avoid engaging with perpetrators of gender apartheid. States violating the treaty could face legal challenges. 

Advancing more effective multilateral action: The criminalization of gender apartheid would also set a legal standard and would push the international community to take stronger action against regimes that systematically oppress women, much like the global response to racial apartheid in South Africa, which included multilateral sanctions, boycotts, and divestments.

Read this Q&A about the process and importance of codifying gender apartheid as a crime against humanity.

“We have to name what is happening in Iran for what it is—an intentional system of subjugation and domination of women best described as gender apartheid,” said Ghandehari.

“Recognizing it as such is essential to begin building a unified international response—much like the global movement against racial apartheid in South Africa,” Ghandehari said.

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